13 Baroque Art 1600-1700 | The Free Art History Course

13-01 Caravaggio

13-01 Caravaggio – Summary

Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio (1571-1610)

Subject: Review of Caravaggio’s Life, Art, and Legacy

Source: Excerpts from “https://www.shafe.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/13-01-Carravaggio.pdf”

Overview:

This lecture provides a summary of the life and artistic achievements of Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, a leading Baroque painter known for his dramatic realism, innovative use of chiaroscuro, and tumultuous personal life. The lecture offers insights into his biography, artistic style, major works, and lasting influence on subsequent generations of artists. It also touches upon the social and political context that shaped his life and work.

Main Themes and Key Ideas:

Turbulent Life and Personality:

Caravaggio’s life was marked by tragedy, violence, and constant movement. Orphaned at a young age due to the plague, he was known for a “fiery temper” and was frequently involved in “fights and violence.”
His volatile nature led to legal troubles, culminating in a murder in 1606, which forced him to flee Rome and spend his remaining years as a fugitive.
He was described as “quick tempered, prone to violence, rebellious, outspoken, passionate, intense, unconventional.”
The document notes that he lived in a time where “Honour was everything and the slightest perceived insult led to violence which in turn led to vendettas.”

Artistic Innovation and Style:

Caravaggio is celebrated as one of the leading Baroque painters, with approximately 64 authenticated paintings.
His “intense realism and dramatic lighting influenced future generations of artists.”
A key element of his style was the use of chiaroscuro (strong contrast between light and dark), which he used to create depth and drama. The document notes: “Artistically his use of chiaroscuro, that is the strong contrast between light and dark, adds depth to Bacchus’ melancholic expression and dark backgrounds against spot lit faces became a trademark feature of all of his later paintings.”
He often painted directly onto the canvas without preliminary sketches, a technique influenced by Venetian artists.
His paintings frequently depicted religious scenes with violent struggles, decapitations, and death, pushing the boundaries of acceptable vulgarity.

Key Works and Commissions:

Early works include Boy Peeling a Fruit, Boy with a Basket of Fruit, and Young Sick Bacchus.
The Fortune Teller and The Cardsharps brought him early fame and attracted the patronage of Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte. The document states that “The Fortune Teller is his first work with more than one figure. The Cardsharps is perhaps his first true masterpiece. Both were immensely popular.”
The commission for the Conarelli Chapel in San Luigi dei Francesi, featuring The Martyrdom of Saint Matthew and The Calling of Saint Matthew, solidified his reputation.
Other notable works include Death of the Virgin, Supper at Emmaus, The Entombment of Christ, David with the Head of Goliath, and The Beheading of St John the Baptist.

Patronage and Influence:

Caravaggio benefited from the patronage of powerful figures like Cardinal Francesco Maria del Monte and the Colonna family, who provided him with support and protection.
His work had an immediate impact on younger artists in Rome, leading to the emergence of Caravaggisti, including Orazio Gentileschi and Artemisia Gentileschi.
Despite his influence, his rival Annibale Carracci ultimately triumphed in Rome due to his large workshop.

Controversies and Rejections:

Several of Caravaggio’s works were rejected due to their realism, perceived lack of decorum, or the use of unconventional models.
Death of the Virgin was rejected by the Carmelites, possibly because he used a prostitute as a model and depicted the Virgin with bare legs. The document states: “There are a number of reasons, it was believed he had used a well-known prostitute as his model for the Virgin and Mary was shown with bare legs, a matter of decorum in either case.”
Madonna with Serpent was removed from Saint Peter’s due to its perceived vulgarity and impiety.

Sexuality and Models:

Caravaggio’s sexuality is a topic of debate. He never married or had children, and many of his paintings feature young boys, suggesting an erotic interest.
However, he was also reportedly intimate with female prostitutes and models.
His models included fellow artists Mario Minniti and Francesco Boneri, as well as prostitutes Fillide Melandroni, Anna Bianchini, and Maddalena Antonietti (“Lena”).
Andrew Graham-Dixon’s assessment is quoted: “The balance of probability suggests that Caravaggio did indeed have sexual relations with men. But he certainly had female lovers.”

Death and Legacy:

Caravaggio died at a young age under mysterious circumstances while seeking a pardon for murder.
Various theories surround his death, including poisoning, illness, lead poisoning, and murder by enemies.
Despite his personal struggles, Caravaggio’s artistic genius left a lasting impact on Baroque art and beyond.
His work experienced a resurgence in popularity in the 20th century, and his paintings now command high prices due to their mastery of light, realism, and scarcity.

Quotes:

“Caravaggio is one of the leading Baroque painters and his personal life was as dramatic and tumultuous as his paintings.”
“Every picture he paints seems to be about his own life unlike, for example, Titian. This is seen to make him the first modern painter.”
“after a fortnight’s work he will swagger about for a month or two with a sword at his side and a servant following him, from one ball-court to the next, ever ready to engage in a fight or an argument, so that it is most awkward to get along with him.”
“Death and human cruelty are laid bare by this masterpiece, as its scale and shadow daunt and possess the mind.” (regarding The Beheading of St John the Baptist)

Conclusion:

Caravaggio was a complex and contradictory figure whose life was as dramatic as his art. His innovative style, characterized by realism and chiaroscuro, revolutionized Baroque painting and continues to captivate audiences today. While his personal life was marred by violence and turmoil, his artistic genius remains undeniable, solidifying his place as a master of Western art.

13-02 Artemisia Gentileschi (to be recorded)

13-02 Artemisia Gentileschi lecture notes (to be written)

13-03 Peter Paul Rubens

13-03 Peter Paul Rubens lecture notes

13-03 A podcast created by Google’s NotebookLM based on my lecture notes

13-02 Peter Paul Rubens – Summary

Summary: This briefing document provides an overview of Peter Paul Rubens (1577-1640), a leading artist of the Baroque era, based on a lecture transcription by Dr. Laurence Shafe. It covers his biography, artistic influences, major commissions, diplomatic career, and the defining characteristics of his style. The document also highlights several important works and the context in which they were created, showcasing Rubens’ mastery of color, composition, and the ability to convey emotion and drama.

Key Themes & Ideas:

Biography & Early Influences: Rubens was born in 1577 in Siegen, Germany, to parents who had fled Antwerp due to religious persecution. His early education provided a classical foundation for his later work. He apprenticed with several artists in Antwerp, including Tobias Verhaecht, Adam van Noort, and Otto van Veen, before being admitted to the Guild of St. Luke in 1598.
Italian Journey & Artistic Development: A pivotal moment in Rubens’ development was his journey to Italy in 1600. He studied the works of Renaissance masters such as Titian, Tintoretto, and Michelangelo, absorbing their techniques and styles. His time in the service of Vincenzo I Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, exposed him to influential patrons and refined his artistic sensibilities.
Establishment in Antwerp & Court Painter: Upon returning to Antwerp in 1608, Rubens quickly established himself as a leading artist. In 1609, he was appointed court painter to Archduke Albert and Archduchess Isabella, rulers of the Southern Netherlands. He married Isabella Brant that same year. He ran a large and successful workshop, producing numerous altarpieces, portraits, and mythological paintings. Anthony van Dyck worked in Rubens’ studio in Antwerp in the 1610s.
Diplomatic Missions & International Recognition: Rubens’s reputation extended beyond artistic circles, leading to his involvement in diplomatic missions for various European courts, including Spain and England. He negotiated peace treaties and undertook major commissions such as the Medici cycle in Paris.
Artistic Style & Legacy: Rubens’s legacy is defined by his “dynamic and sensuous style, his mastery of color and composition, and his ability to convey emotion and drama.” He was a master of the Baroque style, and his influence remains significant in the art world.
Personal Life: Rubens married Isabella Brant in 1609 and Helena Fourment in 1630 after Isabella’s death in 1626. These relationships influenced his art, particularly his portraits and depictions of domestic life. He painted Self-Portrait with Isabella Brant in the Honeysuckle Bower (1609) shortly after their marriage, which “not only serves as a personal memento of his marriage but also as a statement of Rubens’ social status and artistic identity.” Rubens also created several portraits of Helena, including Helena Fourment in a Fur Cloak (c. 1636-1638), revealing a personal connection to his art.
Shift in Focus during Later Years: During his later years he became focused on landscapes and personal, intimate scenes. As the lecture says: “Rubens’s later years at Het Steen, his country estate, influenced his work, as he became more focused on landscapes and personal, intimate scenes. The Garden of Love is a testament to his continued artistic innovation and his ability to evoke a sense of joy and beauty.”
Examples of Key Works: The source lists many important works, including: Samson and Delilah, The Elevation of the Cross, The Descent from the Cross, Daniel in the Lions’ Den, The Landing of Marie de’ Medici at Marseilles, The Allegory of Peace and War, The Garden of Love, The Judgement of Paris, Château de Steen with Hunter, The Rainbow Landscape, and Farmers Returning from the Fields.

Important Works and Context:

Self-Portrait with Isabella Brant in the Honeysuckle Bower (1609-1610): This double portrait is a “statement of Rubens’ social status and artistic identity.” The honeysuckle symbolizes faithfulness, and the clasped hands represent matrimony. “The painting is particularly significant as it not only serves as a personal memento of his marriage but also as a statement of Rubens’ social status and artistic identity.”
The Descent from the Cross (1612-1614): Created for the Cathedral of Our Lady in Antwerp, this work “stands as a masterpiece of Baroque art and a testament to Rubens’ profound ability to convey emotion, movement, and drama.” The diagonal composition and chiaroscuro contribute to the dramatic impact. The muscular figures, reflecting Michelangelo’s influence, “symbolizes the weight of humanity’s sins that Christ bears.”
Marie de’ Medici Cycle (1622-1625): Commissioned by Marie de’ Medici to decorate the Luxembourg Palace in Paris, these paintings “narrate the tumultuous life, political struggles, and triumphs of Marie, blending historical events with allegorical and mythological elements to glorify her reign and legitimise her position in the French monarchy.” One example of this was “The Disembarkation at Marseilles, 3rd November 1600. It celebrates the arrival of the young Italian princess in France on November 3, 1600, marking the beginning of her journey as the wife of King Henry IV and Queen Consort of France.”
Peace and War (Minerva protects Pax from Mars) (1629-1630): Painted during Rubens’ diplomatic mission to England, this allegorical painting was gifted to King Charles I and “reflects Rubens’s concern for peace.” The figures of Pax and Minerva symbolize the prosperity and protection that peace brings.
Helena Fourment in a Fur Cloak (c. 1636-1638): This personal work was left specifically to Helena in Rubens’ will, “The painting’s intimate nature is evident in its pet name and the fact that it was likely not intended for public display.”
The Village Fête (Flemish Kermis) (1635-1638): This work “stands out in Rubens’ oeuvre for its departure from grand historical and mythological themes, focusing instead on the rustic joys and communal spirit of peasant life.” The painting provides insight into 17th-century Flemish customs and social life.

Key Quotes:

“Peter Paul Rubens, a leading artist of the Baroque era and he left an indelible mark on the history of art. His life, marked by prolific artistic output and diplomatic endeavours, reflects a man of exceptional talent and ambition.”
“Rubens’s legacy is defined by his dynamic and sensuous style, his mastery of color and composition, and his ability to convey emotion and drama.”

Conclusion:

Peter Paul Rubens was a multifaceted artist who left a lasting impact on the art world through his dynamic style, masterful techniques, and ability to convey emotion and drama. His life, marked by both artistic innovation and diplomatic engagement, showcases a man of exceptional talent and ambition. His works continue to captivate audiences and inspire artists, solidifying his place as one of the greatest painters of the Baroque era.

13-04 Antony van Dyck

13-04 Van Dyck lecture notes

13-04 Anthony van Dyck podcast produced by Google NotebookLM

13-04 Antony van Dyck – Summary

The main themes, important ideas, and key facts concerning the life and artistic career of Sir Anthony van Dyck (1599-1641), based on the above notes.

1. Early Life and Training (Antwerp, 1599-1621):

Remarkable Talent: Born into a wealthy merchant family in Antwerp, van Dyck displayed exceptional artistic talent from a young age. This precocity set him on a path to becoming a highly influential Flemish Baroque artist. As noted, “From an early age, Anthony displayed a remarkable talent for painting, setting the stage for his future as one of the most influential Flemish Baroque artists of the 17th century.”
Early Training: By eleven, he was apprenticed to Hendrick van Balen, where he “honed his skills and developed his technique.” His rapid absorption of his master’s lessons and early development of a distinctive style were evident.
Precocious Self-Awareness: At sixteen, he painted one of his earliest known self-portraits, demonstrating “not only his technical proficiency but also his growing self-awareness as an artist.” This early work already showcased his ability to capture likeness and personality, key traits of his later portraiture.
Master Status and Rubens’ Influence: By eighteen, a “significant achievement,” van Dyck was admitted as a master to the Antwerp Guild of Saint Luke. Around this time, he began working in the studio of Peter Paul Rubens, the leading northern painter of the day. “Rubens’ influence on van Dyck’s work would be profound and long-lasting.” Rubens himself recognised van Dyck’s talent, describing him as “the best of my pupils” around 1618-1620.
Early Masterpieces: By his early twenties, van Dyck was producing “masterful works.” His Portrait of Cornelis van der Geest (c. 1620) is highlighted as demonstrating his “ability to capture the essence of his subjects with remarkable sensitivity and technical skill.”
First Visit to England and Italian Sojourn: In 1621, van Dyck made his first trip to England, working briefly at the court of James I, foreshadowing his later success there. He then embarked on a six-year journey to Italy, where he studied the great Italian masters and further refined his style.

2. Developing Style and Early Works (circa 1617-1620):

Religious Works: His Christ’s Entry into Jerusalem (circa 1617) is described as a “youthful, vigorous work full of bright colours and movement in a typically baroque style,” closely following the biblical narrative.
Mythological and Biblical Themes: Works like The Mystic Marriage of Saint Catherine (1618-1620), created while in Rubens’ studio, demonstrate his “early talent.” Similarly, Samson and Delilah (1618-1620) shows his “early mastery and artistic independence” at only twenty. This painting strategically focuses on the moment before the act, heightening suspense and revealing his “theatrical sensibility” and divergence from Rubens’ treatment of the same subject. His Drunken Silenus (1620) further exemplifies Rubens’ influence in its composition and colour, yet hints at van Dyck’s emerging personal style.
Psychological Complexity in Religious Scenes: The Betrayal of Christ (1620) is noted for its dynamic movement and “psychological complexity,” contrasting with the static devotional imagery common at the time. The dramatic use of chiaroscuro enhances the emotional intensity.
Versatility Beyond Portraiture: Jupiter and Antiope (1620) is highlighted as one of van Dyck’s few mythological paintings, demonstrating his “virtuosity as a painter of nudes and precious materials.” The sensual portrayal is typical of Baroque mythological scenes, and the existence of multiple versions, including one owned by Rubens, attests to its early success.

3. Rise to Prominence and Court Appointments (1621-1632):

Demand in Antwerp: Upon returning to Antwerp in 1627, van Dyck was highly sought after and appointed court painter by the Archduchess Isabella, solidifying his reputation as a leading artist in the Spanish Netherlands. During this period, he produced numerous portraits of nobility with his characteristic “relaxed elegance.”
Self-Fashioning and Ambition: His Self-Portrait (c. 1620-21) marks a significant shift, presenting himself as an “aristocratic gentleman,” consciously excluding signs of his trade. This reflects his ambition and aligns with Bellori’s description of him as “resplendent in rich attire” and “eager to become famous.” This cultivated aristocratic bearing would become a hallmark of his later portraiture.
The Plague in Palermo (1624): His experience during the plague in Palermo led to the creation of several Saint Rosalia paintings, including Saint Rosalia Crowned with Roses by Two Angels (circa 1624). This work is described as a “testament to art’s power during times of collective crisis,” balancing earthly suffering with heavenly redemption. Its fascinating provenance includes being looted by Joseph Bonaparte and later acquired by the Duke of Wellington.
Italian Group Portraiture: The Lomellini Family (c. 1626) is considered his “most ambitious group portrait” from his Italian period, showcasing his evolution into a portraitist of “extraordinary skill and psychological insight.” Even with the absence of Giacomo Lomellini himself due to Genoese law, the portrait served as a “statement of familial prestige” and foreshadowed his later royal portraits for Charles I. His refined manners in Genoa earned him the moniker “il pittore cavalleresco” (the knightly painter).

4. Principal Painter to Charles I (1632-1641):

Move to London and Royal Patronage: In 1632, van Dyck travelled to London at the invitation of King Charles I, marking the most illustrious phase of his career. He was knighted and appointed “principal painter,” a position that allowed him to create his most iconic works.
Transforming Royal Portraiture: His Portrait of Charles I and Queen Henrietta Maria (1632) is cited as directly leading to his royal appointment. His version was deemed superior to that of the previous court painter, Daniel Mytens, due to its “liveliness,” “interaction,” and “harmony of colours,” balancing formal representation with intimacy.
Revolutionising Equestrian Portraiture: Charles I with M. de St Antoine (c. 1633) is hailed as a “masterpiece of Baroque equestrian portraiture,” designed to impress with the king’s “majesty and authority.” Van Dyck strategically used the equestrian format to enhance Charles’s stature and employed rich political symbolism to reinforce his image as a powerful ruler.
Psychological Nuance in Royal Portraits: Charles I at the Hunt (c. 1635) is considered “the most psychologically nuanced royal portrait of the Baroque era,” achieving an unprecedented sense of intimacy and naturalism. Van Dyck subtly asserts Charles’s authority through his elegant civilian attire and commanding posture, hinting at a larger royal presence beyond the frame.
Legitimising Divine Right: The Equestrian Portrait of Charles I (c. 1637-8) aimed to legitimise the king’s divine right through artistic means, drawing inspiration from Titian’s equestrian portrait of Charles V and connecting Charles to imperial traditions. The viewer’s low vantage point emphasizes the king’s grandeur, ironically contrasting with his actual height.
Personal Emblem and Royal Connection: In his Self-Portrait with a Sunflower (circa 1632–1633), van Dyck presents himself at the height of his career, newly knighted and in royal service. The sunflower symbolises his devotion to Charles I, and the gold chain, a gift from the king, underscores his prestigious status. His fashionable appearance contributed to the “Vandyke” beard becoming popular.
Portrait for Sculpture: Charles I in Three Positions (1635-36) was uniquely created as a reference for the sculptor Gian Lorenzo Bernini to produce a marble bust of the king, highlighting the diplomatic and religious undertones of the commission.
Mythology at the English Court: Cupid and Psyche (circa 1638–1640) is van Dyck’s only surviving mythological painting from his English period. Its contrasts and symbolism embody the mythological narrative, and the unfinished state offers insights into his working methods. The resemblance of Psyche to his mistress, Margaret Lemon, adds a personal layer.
Final Masterpieces: Portrait of William II of Nassau-Orange and Princess Mary (1641), completed in his final year, commemorates a significant political alliance. Van Dyck subtly communicates the power dynamics and captures the exquisite details of their attire.
Last Self-Portrait and Legacy: His final Self-Portrait (c. 1640) is a poignant statement from an artist facing mortality, yet still emphasizing his identity as a working painter. The inclusion of a sunflower on the frame further connects to his royal patronage. Gainsborough’s later admiration, “We are all going to Heaven and Van Dyck is of the company,” underscores his lasting impact.

5. Death and Lasting Influence:

Premature Death: Sir Anthony van Dyck died in London on December 9, 1641, at the age of 42.
Enduring Legacy: Despite his short life, van Dyck left an “indelible mark on the world of art.” His portraits of Charles I and the royal family not only defined the image of the English monarchy but also profoundly influenced generations of portrait painters. His work successfully “bridged the gap between the Flemish Baroque and the English Renaissance,” securing his place as “one of the greatest portraitists in Western art history.” His impact on British portrait-painting is considered greater than any other artist, evolving new forms of portraiture by adapting the visual language of earlier masters like Rubens and Titian.

This briefing document highlights the key aspects of Anthony van Dyck’s life and artistic achievements as presented in the provided sources, demonstrating his remarkable talent, his significant contributions to portraiture, and his enduring legacy.

13-05 Rembrandt

13-05 Britains’s Love of Rembrandt lecture notes

13-05 Rembrandt – Summary

Britain’s Enduring Fascination with Rembrandt

Overview:

This document summarises the history of Rembrandt’s reception and influence in Britain, from the 17th century to the modern era. It explores how British collectors, artists, and critics have perceived and engaged with his work over time, charting his rise from relative obscurity to universally recognised genius and continued influence on modern and contemporary artists. The document highlights the fluctuating popularity of Rembrandt, the prevalence of forgeries, and the way his life story has been romanticised.

Key Themes & Ideas:

Early Encounters & Limited Recognition (17th Century):

While Rembrandt achieved fame in his lifetime throughout Europe, his initial reception in Britain was poorly recorded. King Charles I was an early collector of Rubens and Van Dyck but initially seemed to pay little attention to Rembrandt. However, Charles I became “the first collector to own a Rembrandt outside the Dutch Republic.”
Rembrandt’s etchings were the primary vehicle for his early fame in England. John Evelyn, a diarist, mentions the “incomparable Rembrandt.”
Samuel Pepys owned eight prints “by or after Rembrandt” but appeared unaware of the artist himself.
Hans Sloane, a collector whose material later formed the basis of the British Museum, possessed a large number of Rembrandt prints.

The Rise of “Rembrandt Mania” (18th Century):

The 18th century witnessed a growing European art market centred in London. This drove increasing demand for Italian masters but Rembrandt’s works also became more sought after.
“In 1706 Roger de Piles’s The Art of Painting was translated from French. In it he criticises Rembrandt’s lack of interest in the ancients but praises his colouring, chiaroscuro and particularly his portraits for which British collectors would develop a lasting love.”
Drawings were the initial objects of desire for collectors, followed by paintings in the 1720s.
“By the middle of the eighteenth century a Rembrandt mania was in full swing particularly regarding his etchings.”
The demand led to widespread forgery and satire. “Horace Walpole comments on the madness to have a Rembrandt print and that his ‘scratches … sell for thirty guineas’.”
John Opie became known as the “English Rembrandt”.

Fluctuations in Critical Reception (18th & 19th Centuries):

Joshua Reynolds collected Rembrandt and was influenced by his technique although he was seldom mentioned in his lectures (the Discourses) and when he did it was as an example to avoid. “When he visited the Netherlands he saw The Night Watch and described it as ‘the worst of him I ever saw’.”
Reynolds is believed to have altered Rembrandt’s painting Susanna and the Elders.
While some dismissed Rembrandt as a “gigantic but barbarous genius” (Henry Fuseli), others, like William Hazlitt, proclaimed, “‘if ever there was a man of genius, he was one.'”
The Romantic period saw the idealisation of the solitary artistic genius, and Rembrandt became an example of this. “His life was dramatized and his work related to his personal circumstances rather than the social and cultural circumstances of the period.”
Despite the fluctuating popularity of Rembrandt, major collectors continued to collect his prints during the 19th century.

The “Rembrandt Decade” & Modern Relevance (Late 19th & 20th Centuries):

The 1890s are described as the “Rembrandt Decade” due to increased interest and discovery of new works. Young artists began to see Rembrandt as a highly relevant touchstone.
Augustus John travelled to Amsterdam and was overwhelmed by Rembrandt’s self-portraits: “As I bathed myself in the light of the Dutchman’s genius, the scales of aesthetic romanticism fell from my eyes, disclosing a new and far more wonderful world”.
Major exhibitions in Amsterdam (1898) and London (1899) further solidified his reputation.
The “School of London” artists, like Francis Bacon, Lucien Freud, Leon Kossoff, and Frank Auerbach, considered Rembrandt an undisputed giant.
“For Kossoff, one major formative moment was a visit aged nine to the National Gallery, where he saw Rembrandt’s painting A Woman Bathing in a Stream. He said, “I don’t know what struck me about it because none of the other paintings in the National Gallery where I saw it interested me at all, but somehow that painting opened up a whole world to me—not a world of painting so much as a way of feeling about life that I hadn’t experienced before.”
Auerbach copied Rembrandt’s works extensively, defining Rembrandt’s greatness as “the absolute grandeur of the absolute ordinary.”

Rembrandt’s Enduring Influence on Contemporary Artists:

Artists like Glenn Brown and Jenny Saville have engaged with Rembrandt’s work through appropriation and reinterpretation, demonstrating his continued relevance.
Saville created a new self-portrait inspired by Rembrandt’s Self-Portrait with Two Circles.

Key Works Mentioned:

The document references specific works to illustrate the themes discussed. These include:

Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man (Walker Art Gallery)
An Old Woman Called ‘The Artist’s Mother’ (Royal Collection)
The Three Crosses (Fitzwilliam Museum)
Belshazzar’s Feast (National Gallery)
A Woman in Bed (Sarah) (National Gallery of Scotland)
Girl at a Window (Dulwich Picture Gallery)
The Shipbuilder and his Wife (Royal Collection)
Susanna and the Elders (Gemäldegalerie, Berlin)
The Mill (National Gallery of Art, Washington)
Christ and the Woman Taken in Adultery (National Gallery)
Christ Preaching (The Hundred Guilder Print) (Rijksmuseum)
Self-Portrait with Two Circles (Kenwood House)
The Night Watch (Rijksmuseum)
Bathsheba with David’s Letter (Louvre Museum)
A Woman Bathing in a Stream (National Gallery)
The Lamentation Over the Dead Christ (National Gallery)

Rembrandt’s Life and Technique:

Born in Leiden in 1606, Rembrandt was a prolific artist known for his use of chiaroscuro, lively and energetic compositions, and deep compassion for mankind.
His subjects included portraits, landscapes, and narrative paintings based on Bible stories.
His style evolved over time, from smooth illusionistic representation to a rougher treatment, suggesting form through texture.
He is considered a master of etching.
He faced financial difficulties and personal tragedies.

Conclusion:

Rembrandt’s journey to becoming a universally recognised artistic genius in Britain was not straightforward. His fame rose and fell, and his work was often subject to misattribution, forgery, and even alteration. However, his profound understanding of human emotion, innovative techniques, and influence on subsequent generations of artists has ensured his place as one of the most important figures in the history of art.