03-01 The Invention of Antiquity

The YouTube video is about how we have created a particular view of classical art:

03-01 Notes on the The Invention of Antiquity

The Invention of Antiquity

Source: Excerpts from “The Invention of Antiquity” by Dr. Laurence Shafe

Introduction:

This document reviews excerpts from a talk entitled “The Invention of Antiquity” by Dr. Laurence Shafe. The central argument is that our understanding of classical antiquity, particularly its art, is not a straightforward reflection of historical reality but rather a product of ongoing interpretation influenced by present-day cultural assumptions, limited surviving evidence, and the agendas of different historical periods. The talk explores how objects from antiquity have been rediscovered, reinterpreted, and sometimes deliberately misrepresented to fit the prevailing aesthetic and cultural ideals.

Key Themes and Ideas:

1. The Problem of Interpretation:

• We are inherently limited in our understanding of ancient art due to the fragmentary nature of the evidence and the filter of our own cultural biases. “All we can do is interpret classical works based on our present day cultural assumptions and our limited knowledge from the few remaining objects and texts. We often take it for granted that we understand an artwork but even the simplest questions of why, what and when make it clear that we can easily slip into interpreting works from the point of view of our culture.”
• Simple questions of “why, what and when” expose how easily we project our cultural viewpoint onto classical works.

1. The Renaissance as a Rebirth and Reinvention:

• The Renaissance saw itself as a “rebirth” of Greek and Roman art and glory, fuelled by the rediscovery of buried statues. “Antiquity began to be rediscovered and invented during the Renaissance fuelled by the discovery of statues like this which had remained buried for over 1,000 years.”
• However, the very concept of the Renaissance as a distinct period with a specific meaning is itself a later “invention.” “‘Renaissance’ is a French word that means rebirth and it was seen as the rebirth of the art and glory of the Greek and Roman civilisations. Surprisingly, the word did not appear in print with its current meaning until the middle of the nineteenth century (1855) and it was associated with the end of what was called the ‘Dark Ages’. So, the Renaissance itself was in some ways a later invention.”

1. The Idealisation of White Marble:

• Statues like the Apollo Belvedere became symbols of the Enlightenment and were associated with “noble simplicity and quiet grandeur.” Their pure white marble appearance came to be seen as the “perfection and high point of the sculptor’s art.”
• However, this is a misleading perception. The ancients originally painted their sculptures, but this fact was initially resisted, and even today, painted sculptures are often seen as “slightly kitsch”. “Traces of paint were found and scholars began to accept that the ancients painted the marble. This had been known for some time but everyone found it hard to accept… even today painted sculptures are seen as slightly kitsch.”

1. Antiquity Timeline

• The author modifies a timeline originally proposed by Sir Arthur Evans: Egyptian Old/Middle/New, Minoan, Mycenaean, Etruscan, Greek (1000 BCE – 600 CE), and Roman (753 BCE – 480 CE) periods.
• Greek art is broken into Geometric (c.1200-800 BCE), Archaic (800-480 BCE), Classical (480-323 BCE), and Hellenistic periods.

1. Contrapposto

• The Classical period introduced the contrapposto stance, a posture showing a human figure with most of its weight on one foot, shoulders and arms twisted off-axis from the hips and legs. This gives the figure a more dynamic appearance. “Contrapposto was an extremely important sculptural development as it marks the first time in Western art that the human body was captured at a frozen moment in time, mid-action and so used to express a psychological disposition.”

1. The Significance of Pompeii and Herculaneum:

• The rediscovery of Pompeii and Herculaneum in the 18th century was a pivotal moment, offering what seemed to be a “complete civilization… captured” under volcanic ash.
• The finds revealed aspects of daily life and art that challenged existing perceptions. The range of subjects far exceeded the mythological, including still-lifes, portraits and an “enormous range of naked bodies ranging from the modern idea of an artistic nude to what we would see as pornography.”

1. Roman Attitudes to Sex and Nudity:

• The finds at Pompeii challenge modern conceptions of what the Romans deemed “erotic” or “obscene.” “Today it is thought that the Romans had a much more open view of the body and it is not clear that what we call erotic was a concept they possessed.”
• Erotic imagery, once locked away, are now understood to reflect a more open Roman attitude towards sexuality.
• Phallic images were common and used as good luck charms, and symbols of a male-dominated society. “The phallus was the symbol of the male dominated society and it was also a good luck token against evil spirits. It was completely devoid of shame or embarrassment and was used for everything from wind chimes to the shape of loaves as a sign of good health and good luck.”

1. The House of the Faun and Roman Naming Conventions

• The House of the Faun was the largest surviving house in Pompeii, covering 3,000 sq. m. containing mosaics such as the Alexander Mosaic.
• Roman personal naming conventions consisted of a praenomen, nomen, and cognomen. During the Roman Republic, the praenomen and nomen were essential, but by the imperial period, the cognomen became more important.

1. The Styles of Wall Painting

• August Mau devised a chronological sequence of wall painting styles: First Style (Incrustation), Second Style (Architectural), Third Style (Ornate), and Fourth Style (Intricate). A house could contain all the styles. “It needs to be understood that one style did not replace another as the old styles were retained. A house such as The House of the Fauns contains all the styles.”

1. The Problem of Provenance and Attribution:

• The talk highlights the difficulty of tracing the origins and influences of Roman art, especially the question of Greek originals. “Many mosaics and paintings from the Roman period copy or are variations on a Greek original.”
• Modern scholars often prioritize the “original” and regard copies as inferior, this was not necessarily the case for Romans who “regarded Greek culture as a lesser culture to their own but one associated with the origination and production of better art.”

1. Moral Lessons or Decoration? The Case of Mythological Scenes:

• Rooms with mythological scenes, like the House of Jason’s room with Medea, Phaedra, and Helen, pose interpretive challenges. Were they meant as moral lessons or simply decorative? “As we know the Roman empire was male dominated and founded on strict laws we can only speculate that they were some form of moral lesson aimed at the females of the household in how not to behave. It could also be a warning to men to beware the guile and trickery of powerful, eastern women. But a more accurate answer is we just don’t know.”

1. Restoration and Manipulation:

• The example of the “Dying Seneca” statue illustrates how restorations can alter our perception and how the identification of works changes over time.

1. The Case of the Venus de Milo:

• The story of the Venus de Milo is a prime example of the “invention of antiquity.” The deliberate suppression of the statue’s inscription (identifying it as Hellenistic and not by Praxiteles) highlights how cultural agendas can shape our understanding of art history. “From that point onwards the French who had lost the Venus de Medici successfully promoted the Venus de Milo as the most beautiful Classical Greek sculpture in existence.”

Conclusion:

Dr. Shafe’s talk “The Invention of Antiquity” urges caution in our interpretation of classical art. We should be aware of our own biases, the limitations of the evidence, and the historical contexts in which these objects were rediscovered and reinterpreted. Ultimately, our understanding of antiquity is a constantly evolving construct, shaped by the perspectives and agendas of each generation. “This talk was partly an introduction to classical art and partly a warning that much of antiquity is invented by each generation and each new culture or, more precisely, by each person whose assumptions and beliefs colour their perception and interpretation.”

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03-02 Greek Art

03-02 Notes on Greek Art

Ancient Greek Art and Architecture

Introduction:

This document provides an overview of ancient Greek art and architecture, spanning roughly a thousand years and highlighting its profound influence on Western civilisation. The briefing aims to address the question of how this artistic development arose “in that place at that time” by examining the historical and societal context. It will briefly cover the Minoan and Mycenaean civilisations, and the Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic periods. Key materials (marble, terracotta, limestone), major themes (religion, myth, civic expression, everyday life), and architectural orders (Doric, Ionic, Corinthian) will be touched upon.

I. Early Greek Art and Architecture (1200-800 BCE): Minoan and Mycenaean Civilisations

• Minoan Civilisation: Based on Crete from c. 3100 to c. 1100 BCE, the Minoan civilisation is often regarded as “the first civilisation of Europe.” Major centres included Knossos and Phaistos. Their art frequently incorporated naturalistic imagery, such as the octopus, reflecting “their worship of the sea.”
• Mycenaean Civilisation: Conquered the Minoans around 1400 BCE, creating a “hybrid culture” that lasted until around 1100 BCE.
• The Dark Ages: Following the collapse of both civilisations around 1100 BCE, Greece entered a period of political and cultural decline known as the Dark Ages (c. 1200-800 BCE). Representational art was largely absent, with pottery dominated by abstract decoration: “During this period pottery was dominated by abstract decoration and representational art is largely absent although it was fairly common during the Minoan and Mycenaean periods.” This Protogeometric style emerged, led by Athens.

II. Archaic Period (800-480 BCE)

• Emergence of City-States: The Geometric period (ca. 900-700 BCE) saw the creation of the Greek city-state (polis), the Greek alphabet, and new opportunities for trade and colonisation. “With the development of the Greek city-states came the construction of large temples and sanctuaries dedicated to patron deities, which signalled the rise of state religion.”
• Kouros and Kore: Early Greek sculpture featured simplified, forward-facing figures like the kouros (nude male youth) and kore (clothed female figure). “During the Archaic period (700-480 BCE), early Greek sculpture featured simplified, forward-facing figures like the kouros (nude male youth) and kore (clothed female figure). These were influenced by Egyptian and Near Eastern art.” These statues represented ideals of beauty and athleticism.
• Black-Figure Pottery: The development of black-figure pottery with storytelling motifs was a significant artistic advancement. The François Vase, signed by the potter Ergotimos and the painter Kleitias, is a key example, known for its “detailed craftsmanship and the richness of its narrative imagery.” The black-figure technique involved painting figures with a slip that turned black during firing. Black-figure painting also marked the emergence of identifiable artists.
• Early Temple Architecture: The evolution of early temple architecture, such as the Temple of Hera at Olympia, towards the Doric order is noteworthy. The temple at Olympia “is where the Olympic flame is lit before it is carried round the world.”

III. Classical Period (480-323 BCE)

• Athenian Golden Age: Focuses on the “golden age of Athens under Pericles and its artistic splendour.”
• The Acropolis: The Athenian Acropolis, including the Parthenon, Propylaea, and Erechtheion, stands as an iconic example of architectural achievement.
• Parthenon: Dedicated to Athena. Demonstrates mastery of proportion, harmony, and symmetry. “It looks formal, rigid and formulaic but every part of the structure is distorted in order to make it look perfect.” Its columns are Doric.
• Erechtheion: Known for its blend of Ionic and Doric elements and the Caryatid figures. Ionic order “with its spiral volutes and slender proportions and decorative flourishes, was often used for buildings associated with elegance and grace, such as temples for female deities like Athena.”
• Red-Figure Pottery: The rise of red-figure pottery offered a refined artistry. It replaced black-figure pottery around 520 BCE.
• Sculptural Evolution: Sculpture evolved towards a more naturalistic and expressive style. Sculptors like Kritios, Polyclitus, and Praxiteles developed more realistic, idealized human forms with accurate proportions and a sense of movement and emotion. “In the Classical period (480-323 BCE), sculptors like Kritios, Polyclitus, and Praxiteles developed more realistic, idealized human forms with accurate proportions and a sense of movement and emotion. The contrapposto stance with weight shifted to one hip became a hallmark.” Examples include Myron’s Discobolus and Polykleitos’ Doryphoros. The Artemision Bronze (either Zeus or Poseidon) is noted for its “exquisite rendering of motion and anatomy”. The Aphrodite of Knidos by Praxiteles was “the first female nude in ancient Greek art”.

IV. Hellenistic Period (323-146 BCE)

• Political Changes: Briefly mentions political changes and the rise of new centres.
• Alexander’s Legacy: The Hellenistic period began with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. “Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) created one of the largest empires of the ancient world by the age of thirty, stretching from Greece to north-western India. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history’s most successful military commanders.” His death led to the fragmentation of his empire and the rise of new cultural centres like Alexandria.
• Hellenistic Sculpture: Characterised by greater emotional expression and realism. The Laocoön and His Sons sculpture exemplifies this, focusing on the “human body experiencing extreme emotions.” Other key works include the Winged Victory of Samothrace and the Dying Gaul.
• The Venus de Milo: This statue, discovered in 1820, was promoted as the most beautiful Classical Greek sculpture in the world.

V. Greek Influence on Rome

• Roman Conquest: Greece became part of the Roman Empire following the Achaean War in 146 BCE.
• Greco-Roman Synthesis: Despite Roman control, Greece continued to influence Rome, leading to a synthesis known as Greco-Roman civilisation. “Gracia capta ferum vicitorem cepit’ (the conquered Greece conquered the barbarian conqueror).”
• Roman Adoption of Greek Culture: The Romans adopted and adapted many aspects of Greek art, architecture, literature, and philosophy. They also incorporated Greek temple designs and sculptural ideals into their own architecture and art.

VI. Summary and Legacy

• Greek art and architecture made significant contributions that have had a lasting impact on Western civilisation. “Greek art and architecture made significant contributions that have had a lasting impact on Western civilization.”
• Greek architecture is renowned for its formalised and elegant styles, particularly the classical orders – Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian.
• Greek sculpture and vase painting were equally influential, with a focus on naturalism, proportion, and idealised human forms.
• The legacy of Greek art and architecture endures. The classical Greek forms and principles were later adopted and adapted by the Romans, and then revived during the Renaissance and in subsequent neoclassical movements. The Greeks’ emphasis on balance, harmony, and the human form continues to shape Western aesthetics to this day.

This briefing document provides a foundational understanding of ancient Greek art and architecture, highlighting its key periods, styles, and enduring influence.